Sociology

Sociology joined the family of social sciences relatively at a later stage i.e. in the 19th century, for it had no independent existence before.
In fact, sociology began to emerge as an independent and separate discipline only around the middle of the 19th century. It took almost fifty years before the subject began to assume scientific character that it has today. Prior to the middle of the 18th century, the study of society was dominated by social philosophers rather than by social social scientists. These philosophers were less concerned about what society actually like, than what they thought it ought to be like. But in a relatively short period this emphasis was completely reversed. Hence study of society became more scientific than philosophical.

History

History according to some belongs more to the category of humanities than to the group of social sciences. But for all practical purposes it is also treated as one among the social sciences. History is a systematic record of human past. "It is the story of the experience of mankind". History is a storehouse of records, a treasury of knowledge. It supplies useful information and facts to the social sciences including sociology. Sociology is also useful to history for it provides the social background for the study of history.

Psychology

Psychology is the science of human behavior. This science, more than any other social science, focuses on the individual. Psychology shares one major field of interest with sociology, namely social psychology. Social psychology is the science of the behavior of the individual in society. It studies the way in which personality and behavior are influenced by the social context.

Anthropology

Anthropology is a science of man and his works. Sociology and anthropology are "twin sisters". Both are mutually helpful and supportive. Anthropology has two main branches: (i) Physical anthropology and (ii) cultural anthropology. Physical anthropology deals with human evolution and studies the physical characteristics of man. Cultural anthropology deals with the cultural evolution. It studies the ways of life of different communities, particularly, the primitive ones.
Anthropology differs from sociology in that it usually focuses on the simple, small-scale, primitive societies. Anthropology studies the society as "whole". Sociology concentrates more on group processes within larger modern complex societies.

Political Science

Political Science is the science of state and government. Traditionally it has focused on two main arias. Political philosophy and actual forms of government. Political science has close links with sociology. In the recent years political science has been very strongly influenced by one of the branches of sociology, known as "political Sociology". Political sociology analyses political behavior and studies the social interaction involved in the process of government. The interests of political scientists and political sociologists have been gradually converging and in many instances they now overlap.

Economics

Economics studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Wealth constitutes the central problem of economics. It studies man as a wealth-getter and wealth-disposer. Economics is in many ways the most advanced of the social sciences. Its subject-matter is often more easily measured than that of the order disciplines. But the economy is also a part of society; goods and services do not produce, distribute and consume themselves. The economic processes depend upon Society. The social aspects of economic life are the subject matter of "sociology of economics", one of the major branches of society.

Different SocialSciences: A Glimpse

As it has already been said earlier social sciences refer to a related group of disciplines that study various aspects of human behavior. The main social sciences are - sociology, economics, political science. anthropology and psychology. History is also included in this category. Human behavior, of course, does not come in such neat compartments. In reality the boundaries between the social sciences are very vague and constantly shifting. Each one of these sciences has different historical origins and each science is trying to preserve its distinctness. in spite of specialisation found among the social sciences, they are interrelated and interdepended. Nobody could possibly be an expert in all of them. Because, social scientists are aware that their sciences overlap. This awareness has been responsible for the development of what is known as an "interdisciplinary approach". This approach stresses the idea that each science is necessarily related to, and sometimes dependent on the other. This approach gives them a free hand to "invade" each other's territory whenever it seems useful to do so.

Development of Different Social Sciences

Among the disciplines that formed the social sciences, two contrary, but powerful tendencies at first dominated them, (i) The first was the drive towards unification, that is towards a single, master social science. Some thinkers felt that it was better to have a single science of society [that would take its place in the hierarchy of sciences] than to have a plurality of social sciences. In the 1820s itself Auguste Comte wrote calling for a new science, the one to study man as a social animal. Comte, Spencer, Marx, Bentham and many others to join them, saw the study of society as a unified enterprise. Science society is an indivisible thing, the society must be a unified one. This was their basic belief.
(ii) The second tendency was towards specialisation of individual social sciences. It was this opposite tendency of specialisation or differentiation that won out. In spite of the dreams of Comte, Spencer, Marx and others, there were to be found at the end of the 19th century not one, but several distinct, competitive social sciences. Development off colleges and universities throughout Europe and America very strongly supported this process. These formal educational institutions in fact, started the "age of specialisation". This began first in Germany and later on spread to England, America, France and other countries. The philosophy of specialisation became so fascinating that no major field of study could escape the lure of specialisation.

Evolutionism

The third of the intellectual influences is that of evolution.* It affected everyone of the social sciences each of which was concerned with the idea of "development". It was believed that the idea of evolution would help people to understand the development in social structures or societies as it had helped the biologists to understand the development in the structure of animals.
The impact of the Charles Darwin,s "Origin of Species", published in 1859, was of course great and further enhanced the appeal of the evolutionary view of things. It should be noted that even before the publication of Darwin's work , Comte, Spencer and Marx had already given shape to the idea of evolution in their literary works. "The important point, in any event, is that the idea or the philosophy of evolution was in the air throughout the century, as profoundly contributory of establishment of sociology as a systematic discipline in the 1830s as to such fields as geology, astronomy, and biology. Evolution was as permeative an idea as the Trinity had been in medieval Europe"

Humanitarianism

Humanitarianism, through a very distinguishable current of thought, it was closely related to the idea of "science of society". Humanitarianism is an ideology committed to the cause of human welfare or social welfare. The ultimate purpose of social science was also thought by almost everyone to be the welfare society. Humanitarianism entered the sphere of "social consciousness" and made the people to realise the need for doing something for the improvement of poor and needy.
Due to the influence of humanitarianism, several social service organisations, orphanages, poor houses, child protective laws came in. Great concern was shown towards the poor in the artistic, literacy, religious and political communities. Hospitals and sanitarian sprang up in many cities. Marketing provisions for drinking water facilities, educational opportunities, economic assistance etc. for the benefit of the needy, became a part of the local administrative bodies. The need more "social philosophising" was called for: a genuine application of the science of human understanding was needed. It is clear from above, that humanitarianism and social science were reciprocally related in their purposes. All that helped the cause of the one could be seen as helpful to the other.

Positivism

Positivism implied not merely an appeal to science but almost reverence for science. The positivist appeal of science was to be seen everywhere. The 19th century saw the virtual institutionalisation of the ideal of science was to be seen everywhere. The great aim was that of dealing with moral values, institutions, and all social phenomena through the same fundamental methods that could be used so successfully in such areas as physics or biology.
Prior to the 19th century, no very clear distinction had made between philosophy and science. But now the distinction between philosophy ans science became very clear. It was also felt that every area of man's thought and behaviour could be put to scientific investigation. More than anyone else, it was Auguste Comte who heralded the idea of the scientific treatment of social behaviour. His book "Positive Philosophy" [original French name: "Cours de Philosophy Positive"] published in six volumes between 1830 and 1842, sought to demonstrate the necessity of the science of man in society. He coined the word "sociology" would be for "man the social being" exactly what biology had already done for "man the biological animal". Compte was not alone to argue and in this manner. He was supported by many thinkers of the day.

New Intellectual and Philosophical Tedencies their Impact on the Development of Social Sciences

The twin revolutions, [the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution of Britain] that took place in the 18th century in Europe let loose a new intellectual and philosophical wave. Intellectual currents in the form of socio-political ideologies were also witnessed. For example, the ideologies of individualism, socialism, utilitarianism, utopianism etc. took their birth. It became fashionable for intellectuals and thinkers to float new ideologies and spread novel ideas.
Of the various types of intellectual influences, the impact of positivism, humanitarianism and evolutionism on social sciences was considerable.

IMPACT OF THE TWIN REVOLUTIONS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

It is often said that social sciences in 19th century are mostly understood as responses to the problem of order that was created in men's minds by the weakening of the old order under the twin blows of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. The European society was hard hit by these twin Revolutions. THE old social order that rested on kinship, land, social class, religion, local community, and monarchy became very shaky. Thinkers were more concerned about finding ways and means of reconsolidating these elements of social order. Hence the history of 19th century politics, industry, and trade is basically about the practical efforts of human beings to reconsolidate these elements. Thus, it is obvious that the history of the 19th century social thought is about theoretical efforts to reconsolidate them - that is, to give them new contents and meaning.
"In terms of the immediacy and sheer massiveness of the impact on human thought and values, it would be difficult to find revolutions of comparable magnitude in human history. The political, social and cultural changes that began in France and England at the very end of the 18th century spread almost immediately through Europe and the Americas in 19th century and then on to Asia, Africa, and Oceania in the 20th. The effects of the two revolutions, the one overwhelmingly democratic in the thrust, the other industrial capitalist, have been to undermine, shake, or topple institutions that had endured for centuries, even millennia, and with them systems of authority, status, belief and community".*

EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: A BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The beginning of tradition of social sciences has been major developments of the 19th century. Social sciences such as economics, political science, and history though have a long story of their own, could get the recognition as "social sciences" only in the 19th century. Thinkers and writers such as Herodotus [known as the "Father of History"]; Aristotle [often known as the "Father of Political Science"]; Manu, the great law giver; Kautilya, an authority on "Arthashastra", and many others had written good treatises on different areas of social sciences more than 2000 years ago. The political and social atmosphere of ancient Greece, Rome and India also favoured this kind of intellectual exercises. Due to historical reasons these countries could not maintain the same tempo during the middle age. [500 A.D. to 1550 A.D.] But during 17th and 18th centuries the processes of Renaissance, and Enlightenment gave a big impetus to the continuation of the tradition of reasoning. This change in the intellectual atmosphere favoured the development of sciences which came to be called "social sciences".

Sociology as a Social Science

Sociology is one of the members of the family of Social Sciences. As a young Social Science, it has acquired a distinct status for itself. Its importance and practical usefulness are widely recognised today.
Like all other Social Sciences, Sociology also concerned with life and activities of man. It studies the nature and character of human society, and also its orgin, and development, structure and functions. It analyses the group life of man and examines the bonds of social unity.
Sociology tries to determine the relationship and inter-dependence between diferent elements of social life; between moral and religious, the economic and political, the intellectual and the philosophical and the aritistic and aesthetic, the scientific and technological, and non-material and so on.
Sociology also discovers the fundamental conditions of social stability and social change. It analyses the influence of economic, political, technological, cultural and other forces and factors on man and his life. It endeavours to examine the influence of biological and geographic factors on man also. It throws more light on various social problems like poverty, beggary, over-population, crime, unemployment, etc.

The Necessity for Social Sciences

The two global wars of the 20th century have created new anxieties and new fears for the mankind. These wars the world had to bear with before it could properly maintain its balance which was previously disturbed by the process of Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The scientists, philosophers, administrators, politicians and many other thoughtful observers have been warning human beings for many years of the dangers of the increasing imbalance in their culture. The recent scientific advances in physical sciences culminating in the atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, germ warfare and even the tragedy of Hiroshima, have at last awakened even the innocent people all over the world to the need for comparable competence in social sciences.
The science has shown that it is capable of organising the forces of the atom to cause the destruction of the entire world by a single explosion. It has posed a challenge weather it is possible to organise the forces inherent in human beings and in human society to make such destruction impossible. Hence the necessity of social science. This need, the humanity is obliged to fulfil in mutual self-defence.
It is an irony that the material resources like coal, iron, oil, forest, soil and minerals are better organised than human resources like human energy, intelligence, inherent goodness of man etc.Today governments are busily engaged in armament race. Every country spends millions for inventing or possessing destructive weapons on agencies. But no country spends even a fraction of it to stop such dangerous suicidal works.
Fortunately, realisation has dawned. It is now felt that the imbalance between the physical and social sciences is to be set right. Advancement in physical sciences alone cannot bring man happiness. Social sciences are equally important in promoting human welfare. Social sciences help in understanding and controlling social interactions. "The anthropologists the astronomer of the social sciences", as has been said by the UNESCO in 1954. The U.N.O., UNESCO, W.H.O. are organisations which attempt for the solution of the modern world problems on sociological knowledge.
In conclusion, it can be said that a medical doctor has a basic doctrine that he should prevent disease and save life. Similarly, the social scientist has a basic doctrine that he should prevent friction and violence in human relations and that he should save lives and help in establishing peaceful and self-respecting relations between man and man.

Social Sciences are Less Exact

When compared with the physical sciences, the social sciences are less exact and less precise. The social scientists face many difficulties while making their studies. Scientific method, with all its established procedures, cannot be strictly used in social investigations, because experiments of laboratory conditions are difficult to be arranged in social field. Controlled experiments are almost impossible here. The whole society constitutes the laboratory for social scientist. Science the social scientists have to deal with man who is more complex and everchanging, their studies become less precise though not completely dubious. Complexity if social data, interdependence of cause and effect, problems of objectivity and prediction etc., have made social science comparatively less exact.

Classification of Sciences

It is humanly impossible to for any individual to master the whole of knowledge with all its complexity and diversity.One can only attempt to understand more about one or other branch of knowledge.There are different sciences to deal with different branches of knowledge.These sciences are of two kinds:(i) Physical Sciences, and (ii) Social Sciences.


Physical Sciences

The physical sciences deal mostly with the natural inanimate objects.They are regarded as more precise, exact and less dubious.Ex: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Geography, Astronomy, etc.
The physical scientists make use of the scientific method in order to acquire knowledge in their respective fields.They can product experiments to verify the facts. Theories and laws of universal validity are established more easily and accurately in physical sciences. They provide less scope for doubt and uncertainty. Prediction is not only possible, but also easy and accurate. The problem of objectivity can be overcome easily. The relationship between cause and effect is relatively more clear here.


Social Sciences

The term Social Sciencee is often loosely applied to any kind of study which is concerned with man and society. But , in the strict sense, it refers to "the application of scientific methods of study of intricate and complex network of human relationships and the forms of organization desired t enable people to live together in societies". As Young and Mack say, "By social science we mean those bodies of knowledge compiled through the use of scientific method which deal with the forms and contents of man's interaction".Ex: History, Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology etc.
To be social is to interact, to participate in group life.All human beings are social. People interact with other people on order to survive. All human beings live in society, that is to say, every person is a member of the same human group or some social environment. The physicist, the chemist, the astronomer and the biologist study the universe, in which we live and the elements of which it is composed, in an attempt to understand our physical environment. Similarly, the social scientist studies the environment in which we live in, and attempts to understand human society and to predict how people will interact in a given set of circumstances.

Science is Knowladge

Science is concerned with knowledge.It refers to the body of knowledge systematically arranged.Knowledge is its purpose and system refers to method that has to be followed for the acquisition of knowledge.Exploring the different horizons of knowledge is not only a challenge but also a matter of great intellectual delight to a scientist.Knowledge is as vast as an ocean.The more a scientist acquires it,the more it remains to be acquired.Not only a scientist is more interested in acquiring knowledge but also he is better equipped to do so